Age of re-organization

Overview & Fundamental Concept

Pointwise AISSEE Class 9 Social Science guide for Age of Re-organization (Topic 19). Details the Shungas, Indo-Greeks, Kanishka and the Saka Era (78 CE), Satavahanas, Sangam Age (Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas), Roman trade at Arikamedu, solved models, and 10 drills.

• Following the fall of the Mauryan Empire in 185 BCE, the subcontinent fragmented into regional dynasties accompanied by foreign migrations and cultural syntheses:
• 1. The Shunga Dynasty (185 – 73 BCE):
  • Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga, the commander-in-chief (Senapati) who assassinated the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha.
  • Revived Vedic Brahmanical traditions; performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices.
  • Despite being Brahmanical, Shunga rulers enlarged and beautified the stone gateways (Toranas) and railings of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and Bharhut.
• 2. The Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks):
  • First foreign invaders to cross the Hindu Kush into north-western India.
  • First rulers to issue gold coins in India bearing the portraits of kings and bilingual inscriptions.
  • King Menander (Milinda, ~165 – 145 BCE): Most celebrated Indo-Greek king. Converted to Buddhism after an intellectual philosophical debate with Buddhist monk Nagasena, recorded in the famous Pali text 'Milinda-panho' ('Questions of King Milinda').
• 3. The Shakas (Scythians):
  • Central Asian nomadic tribes who established ruling satrapies (Kshatrapas) in western India.
  • Rudradaman I (c. 130 – 150 CE): Greatest Shaka ruler. Issued the famous Junagadh Rock Inscription in Kathiawar (Gujarat) — celebrated as the very first long inscription written in chaste, classical Sanskrit. The inscription records his personal funding of repairs to the ancient embankment of the Sudarshana Lake originally built under Chandragupta Maurya.
• 4. The Kushans & Kanishka I (~78 – 102 CE):
  • Branch of the Central Asian Yueh-chi tribe. Capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and second capital at Mathura.
  • The Saka Era (78 CE): Founded by Kanishka upon his accession in 78 CE. Adopted by the Government of India in 1957 as the basis of the official Indian National Calendar.
  • The Silk Route Monopoly: The Kushans controlled the lucrative trans-Asian Silk Route passing from China through Central Asia to Roman ports, earning vast wealth by taxing caravans.
  • Fourth Buddhist Council: Convened by Kanishka at Kundalavana in Kashmir, presided over by Vasumitra. Marked the formal split of Buddhism into Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle / orthodox) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle / image worship of Buddha).
  • Patron of Arts & Sciences: Supported the Gandhara School of Art (Greco-Roman realistic style) and Mathura School of Art (indigenous red spotted sandstone). Court hosted poet Ashvaghosha (wrote the epic Buddhacharita in Sanskrit) and legendary physician Charaka (author of Charaka Samhita).

• Rise of the Satavahana Dynasty:
  • Founded by Simuka in the Deccan (modern Maharashtra, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh) following the decline of the Mauryas.
  • Capital situated at Pratishthana (modern Paithan on the Godavari River in Maharashtra).
  • Rulers assumed the proud title of 'Dakshinapathapati' (Lords of the Southern Route).
• Gautamiputra Satakarni (~106 – 130 CE):
  • Greatest ruler of the dynasty; destroyed the power of the Western Shakas (defeated Nahapana).
  • Celebrated in the Nashik Cave Inscription composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri.
  • Described as 'Ekabrahmana' (peerless Brahman) and ruler whose horses drank the waters of the three oceans (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean).
• Unique Satavahana Characteristics:
  • Metronymic Surnames: Rulers proudly bore names derived from their mothers (e.g., Gautami-putra = son of Gautami; Vashishti-putra = son of Vashishti), highlighting high respect for maternal lineage (though succession remained patrilineal).
  • First to Issue Land Grants: Pioneers of granting tax-free villages and land grants (Agraharas) to Brahman priests and Buddhist monks, planting the seeds of Indian feudalism.
  • Coinage: Issued coins made predominantly of Lead, potin, copper, and bronze (not gold!). Coins often depicted marine ships with two masts, signifying thriving maritime commerce.
  • Rock-Cut Architecture: Excavated magnificent rock-cut Buddhist prayer halls (Chaityas) and monasteries (Viharas) at Karle, Bhaja, and Nashik, and built the great stone stupa at Amaravati.

• What was the Sangam Age? The period between approximately 300 BCE and 300 CE in South India (ancient Tamil country / Tamilakam) named after the Sangams — literary academies of Tamil poets and scholars held under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.
• The Three Crowned Monarchs (Muventhar):
  • 1. The Cholas: Controlled the fertile Kaveri delta; inland capital at Uraiyur (famed for cotton textiles); principal sea port at Puhar (Kaveripattinam). Greatest King: Karikala, who defeated a coalition of Cheras and Pandyas at the Battle of Venni and constructed the Grand Anicut (Kallanai Dam) across the Kaveri River. Royal Emblem: Tiger.
  • 2. The Cheras (Kerala): Controlled the Malabar coast; capital at Vanji / Karur; major ports: Muziris and Tondi. King Senguttuvan founded the legendary Pattini cult (worship of Kannagi as the ideal chaste wife). Royal Emblem: Bow and Arrow.
  • 3. The Pandyas: Controlled southern Tamil Nadu; capital at Madurai on the Vaigai River; chief port: Korkai (famous for pearl fisheries). Royal Emblem: Carp (Fish).
• Sangam Literary Masterpieces:
  • Tolkappiyam: Authored by Tolkappiyar — earliest surviving work on Tamil grammar and poetic conventions.
  • Silappadikaram ('The Jewelled Anklet'): Composed by Ilango Adigal — dramatic tragedy of Kovalan, his loyal wife Kannagi, and the dancer Madhavi.
  • Manimekalai: Composed by grain merchant Sattanar — sequel to Silappadikaram narrating the spiritual life of Kovalan and Madhavi's daughter, Manimekalai.
• Flourishing Indo-Roman Maritime Trade:
  • South India engaged in direct, high-value maritime trade with the Roman Empire using seasonal monsoon winds across the Arabian Sea.
  • Arikamedu (near Puducherry): Excavated by Sir Mortimer Wheeler as an active Indo-Roman coastal trading emporium. Yielded Roman amphorae (wine jars), Arretine stamped pottery, Roman glassware, and thousands of Roman gold and silver coins.
  • Key Indian Exports: Black Pepper (coveted in Rome and called 'Yavanapriya' — dear to the Greeks/Romans), pearls, fine muslins, ivory, and beryl gems. Roman historian Pliny lamented the continuous drain of Rome's gold treasury into India!